Гольдфаден, Авром

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[[Image:Abraham_Goldfaden.jpg|thumb|right|Авром Гольдфаден]]
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'''Авром Гольдф́аден''' (идиш אברהם גאָלדפֿאַדען; Goldfaden, Abraham; ''Авраам Голденфодим'', 24 июля 1840, [[Староконстантинов]], Хмельницкая область, Украина, — 9 января 1908, [[Нью-Йорк]]) — еврейский поэт, композитор и драматург, автор музыкальных пьес, основатель профессионального театра на [[идиш]].
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== Образование ==
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Сын часовщика,<ref name="Berkowitz, 2004, 12">Berkowitz, 2004, 12</ref> приверженца [[Ѓаскала|Ѓаскалы]], Гольдфаден получил традиционное еврейское и светское образование, владел русским и немецким языками. В 1857–66 гг. учился в Житомирском раввинском училище, получил звание учителя.
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По рассказам, в детстве он настолько любил подражать выступлениям [[бадхан]]ов (свадебных клоунов) и [[Бродер, Берл|бродеровским певцам]], что его прозвали ''Авромеле Бадхен''.<ref name="Sandrow, 2003">Sandrow, 2003</ref>
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До 1875 г. преподавал в казенных училищах [[Симферополь|Симферополя]] и [[Одесса|Одессы]].
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== Начало поэтического и драматургического творчества ==
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Еще в Житомире Гольдфаден под влиянием своего земляка и наставника [[Готлобер, Авраhам Бер|А. Б. Готлобера]] стал писать стихотворения на [[иврит]]е, вошедшие в сборник «Цицим у-фрахим» («Ростки и цветы», 1865). Первое напечатанное стихотворение Гольдфадена называлось "Прогресс", оно было проникнуто духом [[сионизм]]а ещё до появления этого движения.
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Но как поэт Гольдфаден стал известен после выхода в свет сборников его стихотворений на [[идиш]] «Дос иделе» («Еврей», 1866) и «Ди идене» («Еврейка», 1869). Многие из этих стихотворений очень скоро стали популярными народными песнями.
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С 1868 года он жил в [[Одесса|Одессе]]. Там его двоюродный брат, хороший пианист, помог положить некоторые его стихи на музыку.
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Встреча с «[[Бродер, Берл|бродеровскими певцами]]», исполнявшими еврейские песни (в том числе и сочинения Гольдфадена) как сценические миниатюры, навела Гольдфадена на мысль создать с их участием спектакль, перемежая песни занимательными диалогами.
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В [[Одесса|Одессе]] Гольдфаден возобновил свое знакомство с другим [[идиш]]еязычным писателем - [[Линецкий, Ицхак Иоэль|Ицхаком Йоэлем Линецким]], которого он знал по [[Житомир]]у.<ref name="Berkowitz, 2004, 12"/> Там он встретил [[иврит]]ского поэта [[Вербель, Элиягу Мордехай|Элиягу Мордехая Вербеля]] (чья дочь Полина стала женой Гольдфадена) и опубликовал стихи в газете ''Коль-Мевасер''. Кроме того, он написал свою первые две пьесы: ''Ди цвей ейнес''(''Два соседа'') и''Ди мурне Сосфе''(''Тетя Соня''), включавшие его стихи из книги «Ди идене» («Еврейка», 1869), которая выдержала три издания в течение трех лет. В это время он и Полина жили в основном на его скудную зарплату учителя и мелкие приработки.
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После неудач с изданием еженедельника «Исролик» (Львов, 1875) и газеты «Буковинер израелитишер фолксблат» ([[Черновцы]], 1876) Гольдфаден переехал в [[Яссы]].
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Постановка в октябре 1876 г. первой пьесы Гольдфадена «Ди бобе мит дем эйникл» («Бабушка и внучек»), восторженно встреченной зрителем, считается рождением профессионального театра на [[идиш]]. Это был странствующий театр «блуждающих звезд», по образцу которого вскоре возникли многие новые труппы. Обычно их руководитель был, как и Гольдфаден, режиссером, оформителем спектаклей и автором всего репертуара.
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Труппа Гольдфадена гастролировала по [[Румыния|Румынии]] с большим успехом. В 1879 году поехала в Россию. Из-за запрета русским правительством спектаклей на [[идиш]] труппа Гольдфадена в 1883 г. прекратила существование.
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Гольдфаден выехал в [[Варшава|Варшаву]], где создал новую труппу под названием «немецкой» (играла до середины 1886 г.).
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== Жизнь в США ==
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В 1887–89 гг. Гольдфаден жил в [[Нью-Йорк]]е, издавал газету «Ньюйоркер илустрирте цайтунг», затем ставил свои пьесы в [[Париж]]е и [[Львов]]е. С 1903 г. жил в [[Нью-Йорк]]е.
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[[Файл:AfishaGoldfadena.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Афиша к спектаклю по пьесе А. Гольдфадена «Бар-Кохба». Нью-Йорк, 1917 (из Электронной еврейской энциклопедии)]]
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Благодаря его усилиям также была осуществлена первая театральная постановка в [[США]] на языке [[иврит]].
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== Особенности пьес Гольдфадена ==
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Свои спектакли Гольдфаден адресовал широким кругам еврейского общества, так как видел в театре действенное средство воспитания и просвещения народа. Поэтому Гольдфаден завершал свои пьесы нравоучительным финалом, во имя доступности прямолинейно делил героев на положительных и отрицательных, нередко ради успеха у невзыскательной публики перемежал в диалогах истинные блестки народного юмора пошловатым балагурством. Это не могло не сказаться на литературном качестве драматургических произведений Гольдфадена.
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Тем не менее многие из его пьес (около шестидесяти; не все изданы) и поныне не сходят со сцены театра на [[идиш]], подвергаясь последующим обработкам.
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Особенно популярны его водевили:
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* «Шмендрик» («Ничтожный человечек», 1877),
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* «Дер фанатик, одер цвей Куни-Лемлех» («Фанатик, или два простофили», 1880),
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музыкальные драмы:
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* «Шуламис» («Суламифь», 1880),
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* «Ди кишефмахерин» («Колдунья», около 1879) и другие.
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Реакцией на погромы в 1881 г. явилась пьеса Гольдфадена «Доктор Алмасадо» (1882), в которой события в Палермо XIV в. явственно намекали на русскую действительность, на тяжелое положение евреев России.
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Народно-героической драмой «Бар-Кохба» (1882) Гольдфаден, приверженец [[Ховевей Цион]], стремился пробудить у зрителя чувство национальной гордости и сознание таящихся в народе сил для сопротивления произволу.
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== Музыка Гольдфадена ==
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Не умея записывать музыку и играть на каком-либо музыкальном инструменте, Гольдфаден, тем не менее, создавал мелодии для спектаклей.
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Черпая из еврейских народных песен, синагогальных напевов, народной и популярной музыки других европейских народов, в том числе из итальянских и французских оперных арий, Гольдфаден преобразовывал их, приспосабливая к ритму и настроению своих песенных текстов, входивших в пьесы.
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Многие песни Гольдфадена стали народными еще до того, как он включил их в свои пьесы, другие получили распространение благодаря спектаклям его труппы.
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Ряд пьес Гольдфадена ставился с большим успехом в Израиле в переводе на [[иврит]].
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Колыбельная из оперы «Суламифь» ([[Роженькес мит мандлен]] - "Изюм с миндалём") стала популярной народной песней.
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== Поэзия Гольдфадена ==
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Гольдфаден напмсал сотни песен и стихов. Наиболее известные из них:
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* ''"Дер Малех"'' ("Ангел")
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* ''"[[Роженькис мит мандлен]]"'' ("Изюм с миндалём")
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* ''"Шабес, йонтев ун рош-ходеш"'' ("Суббота, праздник и новый мессяц")
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* ''"Цу дайн гебурцтаг!"'' ("Tс днём рождения!")
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== Значение творчества Гольдфадена ==
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Гольдфаден заслуженно был назван «отцом еврейского театра». Он внес крупный вклад в становление и развитие национального сценического искусства как драматург, создатель устойчивого репертуара и воспитатель первого поколения профессиональных еврейских актеров. Многие из них вскоре стали руководителями театральных трупп, игравших на [[идиш]] в ряде стран.
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[[Штернберг, Яков Моисеевич|Янкев Штернберг]] назвал его "принцем, который разбудил спящую румынскую еврейскую культуру".<ref>Bercovici, 1998, 118</ref>
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[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israil_Bercovici Исрали Беркович] пишет, что в его работах "... мы находим общие точки с тем, что мы теперь называем 'Тотальный театр'. Во многих из его пьес он чередует прозу и стихи, пантомиму и танцы, акробатические номера и приёмы  из ''jonglerie'', и даже спиритуализма..."<ref>Bercovici, 1998, 237-238</ref>
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В [[Яссы|Яссах]] проводится театральный фестиваль имени Авраама Гольдфадена.
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== Гольдфаден и сионизм ==
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Гольдфаден был в близких отношениях с [[сионизм]]ом. Некоторые из его ранних стихов проникнуты сионистским призывом. Одна из его последних пьес была написана на иврите.
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Некоторые из его пьес были явно или неявно сионистского содержания. Действие "Шуламис" происходит в [[Иерусалим]]е. ''Машиах цейтен'' ("Времена машиаха") заканчивается тем, что герой уезжает из [[Нью-Йорк]]а в [[Страна Израиля|Палестину]]).
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В 1900 г. был делегатом от [[Париж]]а на [[Сионистский конгресс|Сионистском конгрессе]] в [[Лондон]]е.<ref>Berkovitz, 2004, 15-16</ref>
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Тем не менее, он провел большую часть своей жизни (и поставил больше половины своих пьес) в [[Черта оседлости|черте оседлости]] и в прилегающих еврейских областях Румынии. А когда он уезжал оттуда, никогда не ехал в [[Страна Израиля|Палестину]], а ехал в такие города, как [[Нью-Йорк]], [[Лондон]] или [[Париж]]. Это понятно, поскольку число его потенциальных зрителей в еврейской [[Страна Израиля|Палестине]] в свое время было очень мало.
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== Внешние ссылки ==
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* [http://www.eleven.co.il/?mode=article&id=11248&query=%C3%CE%CB%DC%C4%D4%C0%C4%C5%CD Электронная еврейская энциклопедия, статья "Гольдфаден Аврахам" на основании КЕЭ, том 2, кол. 163–165]
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* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Goldfaden Статья "Abraham Goldfaden" из английской части Википедии]
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* [http://savethemusic.com/yiddish/bin/halloffame.cgi?Page=yiddish&Bio=goldfaden Краткая биография {{lang-en|}}]
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* [http://www.jewishmuseum.org.uk/whatson/exhibitions/y2.asp «Рождение театра на языке идиш»] {{lang-en|}}
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* [http://www.sem40.ru/index.php?newsid=217684 Вениамин Чернухин. Откуда взялись еврейские песни? – 4]
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* [http://www.iddish.co.il/SongsShow.aspx?songID=47 ראָזשינקעס מיט מאַנדלען]
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* Richard McBee {{cite web |url=http://www.folksbiene.org/jpress010704.htm |title=Akeydes Yitskhok - Goldfaden's Masterpiece Revived |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20051219053855/http://www.folksbiene.org/jpress010704.htm |archivedate=2005-12-19}}. ''[[The Jewish Press]]'' (New York) January 7, 2004: review of a 2003 performance of Goldfaden's operetta ''Akeydes Yitskhok'' (''"Жертвоприношение Ицхака"'').
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* [http://benyehuda.org/levinson/avraham_goldfaden.html avraham levinson - article in Hebrew about Goldfaden on line]
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Примечания
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{{Примечания}}
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[[Категория:Персоналии по алфавиту]]
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[[Категория:Актёры и режиссёры театра на идише]]
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[[Категория:Поэты на идише]]
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[[Категория:Еврейский театр]]
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[[Категория:Драматурги по алфавиту]]
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[[Категория:Композиторы по алфавиту]]
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[[Категория:Еврейские песни]]
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[[Категория:Еврейская музыка]]
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[[Категория:Евреи в Российской империи/СССР/СНГ]]
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[[Категория:Евреи в США/Канаде]]
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[[Категория:Евреи в Европе]]
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== Youth and early manhood ==
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In 1875, Goldfaden headed for [[Munich]], intending to study medicine. This did not work out, and he headed for [[Lviv|Lvov/Lemberg]] in [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]], where he again met up with Linetsky, now editor of a weekly paper, ''Isrulik'' or ''Der Alter Yisrulik'' (which was well reputed, but was soon shut by the government). A year later, he moved on to [[Chernivtsi]] in [[Bukovina]], where he edited the Yiddish-language daily ''Dos Bukoviner Israelitishe Folksblatt''. The limits of the economic sense of this enterprise can be gauged from his inability to pay a registration fee of 3000 ducats. He tried unsuccessfully to operate the paper under a different name, but soon moved on to [[Iaşi]] on the invitation of Isaac Librescu (1850–1930), a young wealthy communitary activist interested in theatre.
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== Iaşi ==
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[[File:Bustul lui Avraham Goldfaden din Iaşi.jpg|thumb|200px|Avram Goldfaden's statue near the Iaşi National Theatre]]
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Arriving in Iaşi in 1876, Goldfaden was fortunate to be better known as a good poet &mdash; many of whose poems had been set to music and had become popular songs &mdash; than as a less-than-successful businessman. When he sought funds from Isaac Librescu for another newspaper, Librescu was uninterested in that proposition. Librescu's wife remarked that Yiddish-language journalism was just a way to starve; she suggested that there would be a lot more of a market for Yiddish-language theater. Librescu offered Goldfaden 100 francs for a public recital of his songs in the garden of Shimen Mark, Grădina Pomul Verde ("the Green Fruit-Tree Garden").
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Instead of a simple recital, Goldfaden expanded this into something of a [[vaudeville]]; either this or their first indoor performance later that year in [[Botoşani]] is generally counted as the first professional [[Yiddish theater]] performance. However, the nature of his cast indicates exactly how nominal it is to choose one performance as "the first": Goldfaden's first actor, [[Israel Grodner]], was already singing Goldfaden's songs (and others) in the salons of Iaşi.
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In fact, another candidate for consideration as the first professional Yiddish theater performance also included Grodner. He sang in a concert in [[Odessa]] in 1873, which also included some of the Goldfaden's songs, although Goldfaden was not personally involved. It appears to have had significant improvised material between songs, although no actual script.
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Although Goldfaden, by his own account, was familiar at this time with "practically all of Russian literature", had plenty of exposure to Russian and Polish theater, and had even seen an [[African American]] tragedian, [[Ira Aldrich]], performing [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]],<ref name="Berkowitz, 2004, 12"/> the performance at Grădina Pomul Verde was only a bit more of a play than Grodner had participated in three years earlier. The songs were strung together with a bit of character and plot and a good bit of improvisation. The performance by Goldfaden, Grodner, [[Sokher Goldstein]], and possibly as many as three other men went over well. The first performance was either ''Di bobe mitn einikl'' (''Grandmother and Granddaughter'') or ''Dos bintl holţ'' (''The Bundle of sticks''); sources disagree. (Some reports suggest that Goldfaden himself was a poor singer, or even a non-singer and poor actor; according to Bercovici, these reports stem from Goldfaden's own self-disparaging remarks or from his countenance as an old man in New York, but contemporary reports show him to have been a decent, though not earth-shattering, actor and singer.)
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After that time, Goldfaden continued miscellaneous newspaper work, but the stage became his main focus.
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As it happens, the famous Romanian poet [[Mihai Eminescu]], then journalist, saw one of their Pomul Verde performances later that summer. He records in his review that the company had six players. (A 1905 typographical error would turn this to a much-cited sixteen, suggesting a grander beginning for Yiddish theater.) He was impressed by the quality of the singing and acting, but found the pieces "without much dramatic interest." [Bercovici, 1998, 58] His generally positive comments would seem to deserve to be taken seriously: Eminescu was known generally as "virulently [[antisemitism|antisemitic]]".<ref>Riff, 1992, 201</ref> Eminescu appears to have seen four of Goldfaden's early plays: a [[satire|satiric]] musical revue ''De velt a gan-edn'' (''The World and Paradise''), ''Der Farlibter Maskil un der Oifgheklerter Hosid''' (a dialogue between "an infatuated philosopher" and "an enlightened [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasid]]"), another musical revue ''Der sver mitn eidem'' (''Father-in-law and Son-in-Law''), and a comedy ''Fishl der balegole un zain knecht Sider'' (''Fishel the Junkman and His Servant Sider'').<ref>Bercovici, 1998, 58</ref>
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== The search for a theater ==
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As the season for outdoor performances was coming to a close, Goldfaden tried and failed to rent an appropriate theater in Iaşi. A [[theater]] owner named Reicher, presumably Jewish himself, told him that "a troupe of Jewish singers" would be "too dirty". Goldfaden, Grodner, and Goldstein headed first to [[Botoşani]], where they lived in a garret and Goldfaden continued to churn out songs and plays. An initial successful performance of ''Di Rekruten'' (''The Recruits'') in an indoor theater ("with loges!" as Goldfaden wrote) was followed by days of rain so torrential that no one would come out to the theater; they pawned some possessions and left for [[Galaţi]], which was to prove a bit more auspicious, with a successful three-week run.
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In Galaţi they acquired their first serious set designer, a [[housepainter]] known as [[Reb Moishe Bas]]. He had no formal artistic training, but he proved to be good at the job, and joined the troupe, as did [[Sara Carp|Sara Segal]], their first actress. She was not yet out of her teens. After seeing her perform in their Galaţi premiere, her mother objected to her unmarried daughter cavorting on a stage like that; Goldstein (unlike Goldfaden and Grodner) was single; he promptly married her and she remained with the troupe. (Besides being known as Sara Segal and Sofia Goldstein, she became best known as Sofia Karp, after a second marriage to actor [[Max Karp]]).
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After the successful run in Galaţi came a less successful attempt in [[Brăila]], but by now the [[company]] had honed its act and it was time to go to the capital, [[Bucharest]].
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== Bucharest ==
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As in Iaşi, Goldfaden arrived in Bucharest with his reputation already established. He and his players performed first in the early spring at the salon Lazăr Cafegiu on Calea Văcăreşti ([[Văcăreşti]] Avenue, in the heart of the [[ghetto]]), then, once the weather turned warm, at the Jigniţa garden, a pleasant tree-shaded [[beer garden]] on Str. Negru Vodă that up until then had drawn only a neighborhood crowd. He filled out his cast from the great pool of Jewish vocal talent: synagogue [[Hazzan|cantors]]. He also recruited two eminently respectable classically trained [[prima donna]]s, sisters [[Margaretta Schwartz|Margaretta]] and [[Annetta Schwartz]].
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Among the cantors in his casts that year were Lazăr Zuckermann (also known as Laiser Zuckerman; as a song-and-dance man, he would eventually follow Goldfaden to New York and a long stage career,<ref>Adler, 1999, 86 (commentary)]</ref> Moishe Zilberman (also known as Silberman), and Simhe Dinman, but the find, soon to become a stage star, was the 18-year-old [[Zigmund Mogulescu]] (Sigmund Mogulesko), an orphan who had already made his way in the world as a singer not only as a soloist in the Great Synagogue of Bucharest, but in cafes, at parties, with a visiting French [[operetta]] company, and even in a church choir. Before his voice changed, he had sung with Zuckerman, Dinman, and Moses Wald in the "Israelite Chorus", performing at important ceremonies in the Jewish community. Mogulescu's audition for Goldfaden was a scene from ''Vlăduţu Mamei'' (''Mama's Boy''), which formed the basis later that year for Goldfaden's light comedy ''Shmendrik, oder Die Komishe Chaseneh'' (''Shmendrik or The Comical Wedding'' starring Mogulescu as the almost painfully clueless and hapless young man (later, famously played in New York and elsewhere by actress [[Molly Picon]]); the title is a pun on the ''[[Chemical Wedding]]'').
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This recruiting of cantors was not without controversy: Cantor Cuper (also known as Kupfer), the head cantor of the Great Synagogue, considered it "impious" that cantors should perform in a secular setting, to crowds where both sexes mingled freely, keeping people up late so that they might not be on time for morning prayers.
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While one may argue over which performance "started" Yiddish theater, by the end of that summer in Bucharest Yiddish theater was an established fact. The influx of Jewish merchants and middlemen to at the start of the [[Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78|Russo-Turkish War]] had greatly expanded the audience; among these new arrivals were [[Israel Rosenberg]] and [[Jacob Spivakovsky]], the highly cultured scion of a wealthy Russian Jewish family, both of whom actually joined Goldfaden's troupe, but soon left to found the first [[Yiddish theater]] troupe in [[Imperial Russia]].<ref>Adler, 1999, 60, 68</ref>
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Goldfaden was churning out a repertoire &ndash; new songs, new plays, translations of plays from Romanian, French, and other languages; in the first two years, he wrote 22 plays, and would eventually write about 40 &ndash; and while Goldfaden was not always able to retain the players in his company once they became stars in their own right, he continued for many years to recruit first-rate talent, and his company became a ''de facto'' training ground for Yiddish theater. By the end of the year, others were writing Yiddish plays as well, such as [[Moses Horowitz]] with ''Der tiranisher bankir'', (''The Tyrannical Banker'') or Grodner with ''Curve un ganev'', (''Prostitute and Thief''), and Yiddish theater had become big theater, with elaborate sets, duelling choruses, and extras to fill out crowd scenes.
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Goldfaden was helped by [[Ion Ghica]], then head of the [[Romanian National Theater]] to legally establish a "dramatic society" to handle administrative matters. From those papers, we know that the troupe at the Jigniţa included Moris Teich, Michel Liechman (Glückman), Lazăr Zuckermann, Margareta Schwartz, Sofia Palandi, Aba Goldstein, and Clara Goldstein. We also know from similar papers that when Grodner and Mogulescu walked out on Goldfaden to start their own company, it included (besides themselves) I. Rosenberg, Y. Spivakovsky, P. Şapira, M. Banderevsky, Anetta Grodner, and Rosa Friedman.
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Ion Ghica was a valuable ally for Yiddish theater in Bucharest. On several occasions he expressed his favorable view of the quality of acting, and even more of the technical aspects of the Yiddish theater. In 1881, he obtained for the National Theater the costumes that had been used for a Yiddish pageant on the coronation of King Solomon, which had been timed in tribute to the actual coronation of [[Carol I of Romania]].
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== A turn to the serious ==
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While light comedy and satire might have established [[Yiddish theater]] as a commercially successful medium, it would never have established Goldfaden as "the Yiddish Shakespeare" (which the ''New York Times'' called him at his death in 1908). As a man broadly read in several languages, he was acutely aware that there was no Eastern European Jewish tradition of dramatic literature, his audience was used to seeking just "a good glass of [[Odobeşti wine|Odobeşti]] and a song". Years later, he would paraphrase the typical Yiddish theatergoer of the time as saying to him, "We don't go to the theater to make our head swim with sad things. We have enough troubles at home... We go to the theater to cheer ourselves up. We pay up a coin and hope to be distracted, we want to laugh from the heart."
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Goldfaden wrote that this attitude put him "pure and simply at war with the public". His stage was not to be merely "...a masquerade. No, brothers. If I have arrived at having a stage, I want it to be a school for you. In youth you didn't have time to learn and cultivate yourself... Laugh heartily if I amuse you with my jokes, while I, watching you, feel my heart crying. Then, brothers, I'll give you a drama, a tragedy drawn from life, and you, too, shall cry &ndash; while my heart shall be glad." Nonetheless, his "war with the public" was based on understanding that public. He would also write, "I wrote ''Di kishefmakhern'' (''[[The Witch of Botoşani|The Witch]]'') in Romania, where the populace &ndash; Jews as much as Romanians &ndash; believe strongly in witches." Local superstitions and concerns always made good subject matter, and, as Bercovici remarks, however strong his inspirational and didactic intent, his historical pieces were always connected to contemporary concerns.
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Even in the first couple of years of his company, Goldfaden did not shy away from serious themes: his rained-out vaudeville in Botoşani had been ''Di Rekruten'' (''The Recruits''), playing with the theme of the [[Impressment|press gang]]s working the streets of that town to [[conscription|conscript]] young men into the army. Before the end of 1876, Goldfaden had already translated ''Desolate Island'' by [[August von Kotzebue]]; thus, a play by a German aristocrat and Russian spy became the first non-comic play performed professionally in Yiddish. After his initial burst of mostly vaudevilles and light comedies (although ''Shmendrik'' and ''The Two Kuni-Lemls'' were reasonably sophisticated plays), Goldfaden would go on to write many serious [[Yiddish]]-language plays on Jewish themes, perhaps the most famous being ''[[Shulamith]]'', also from 1880. Goldfaden himself suggested that this increasingly serious turn became possible because he had educated his audience. Nahma Sandrow suggests that it may have had equally much to do with the arrival in Romania of Russian Jews at the time of the [[Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78|Russo-Turkish War]], who had been exposed to more sophisticated [[Russian language]] theater. Goldfaden's strong turn toward almost uniformly serious subject matter roughly coincided with bringing his troupe to [[Odessa]].<ref name="Sandrow, 2003"/>
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Goldfaden was both a theoretician and a practitioner of theater. That he was in no small measure a theoretician &ndash; for example, he was interested almost from the start in having set design seriously support the themes of his plays &ndash; relates to a key property of Yiddish theater at the time of its birth: in general, writes Bercovici, theory ran ahead of practice. Much of the Jewish community, Goldfaden included, were already familiar with contemporary theater in other languages. The initial itinerary of Goldfaden's company &ndash; Iaşi, Botoşani, Galaţi, Brăila, Bucharest &ndash; could as easily have been the itinerary of a Romanian-language troupe. Yiddish theater may have been seen from the outset as an expression of a Jewish national character, but the theatrical values of Goldfaden's company were in many ways those of a good Romanian theater of the time. Also, Yiddish was a German dialect which became a well-known language even among non-Jews in [[Moldavia]] (and [[Transylvania]]), an important language of commerce; the fact that one of the first to write about Yiddish theater was Romania's [[national poet]], [[Mihai Eminescu]], is testimony that interest in Yiddish theater went beyond the Jewish community.
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Almost from the first, Yiddish theater drew a level of theater criticism comparable to any other European theater of its time. Bercovici cites a "brochure" by one G. Abramski, published in 1877. Abramski described and gave critiques of all of Goldfaden's plays of that year, discussed what a Yiddish theater ought to be, speculated that this might be a moment comparable to the [[Elizabethan era]] for English theater, noted the many sources of this emerging form (ranging from [[Purim play]]s to [[circus]] [[pantomime]]), praised the strong female roles, but criticized where he saw weaknesses: a male actor unconvincingly playing the mother in ''Shmendrik'', or the entire play ''Di shtume kale'' (''The Mute Bride'') &mdash; a play apparently written to accommodate a pretty, young actress who was too nervous to deliver her lines &mdash; saying of it that the only evidence of Goldfaden's authorship was his name.
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== Russia ==
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Goldfaden's father wrote him to solicit the troupe to come to [[Odessa]] in [[Ukraine]], which was then part of [[Imperial Russia]]. The timing was opportune: the end of the war meant that much of his best audience were now in Odessa rather than Bucharest; Rosenberg had already quit Goldfaden's troupe and was performing the Goldfadenian repertoire in Odessa.
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With a loan from Librescu, Goldfaden headed east with a group of 42 people, including performers, musicians, and their families. After the end of the Russo-Turkish War he and his troupe travelled extensively through Imperial Russia, notably to [[Kharkov]] (also in Ukraine), Moscow, and [[Saint Petersburg]]. [[Jacob Pavlovich Adler|Jacob Adler]] later described him at this time as "a ''bon vivant''", "a cavalier", "as difficult to approach as an emperor".<ref>Adler, 1999, 114, 116</ref> He continued to turn out plays at a prolific pace, now mostly serious pieces such as ''Doctor Almasada, oder Die Yiden in Palermo'' (''[[Doctor Almasado|Doctor Almasada, or The Jews of Palermo]]''), ''[[Shulamith]]'', and ''[[Bar Kokhba (play)|Bar Kokhba]]'', the last being a rather dark operetta about [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]], written after the [[pogrom]]s following the 1881 assassination of Czar [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]], as the tide turned against Jewish emancipation.
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As it happens, a [[France|Frenchman]] named Victor Tissot happened to be in [[Berdichev]] when Goldfaden's company was there. He saw two plays &ndash; ''Di Rekruten'', first premiered in Botoşani, and the later ''Di Shvebleh'' (''Matches''), a play of intrigue. Tissot's account of what he saw gives an interesting picture of the theaters and audiences Goldfaden's troupe encountered outside of the big cities. "Berdichev," he begins, "has not one cafe, not one restaurant. Berdichev, which is a boring and sad city, nonetheless has a theatrical hall, a big building made of rough boards, where theater troupes passing through now and then put on a play." Although there was a proper stage with a curtain, the cheap seats were bare benches, the more expensive ones were benches covered in red percale. Although there were many full beards, "there were no long caftans, no skullcaps." Some of the audience were quite poor, but these were assimilated Jews, basically secular.  The audience also included Russian officers with their wives or girlfriends.
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In Russia, Goldfaden and his troupe drew large audiences and were generally popular with progressive Jewish intellectuals, but slowly ran afoul of both the Czarist government and conservative elements in the Jewish community. Goldfaden was calling for change in the Jewish world:
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: ''Wake up my people''
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: ''From your sleep, wake up''
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: ''And believe no more in foolishness.''
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A call like this might be a bit ambiguous, but it was unsettling to those who were on the side of the ''status quo''. Yiddish theater was banned in Russia starting September 14, 1883 as part of the anti-Jewish reaction following the assassination of Czar [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]]. Goldfaden and his troupe were left adrift in Saint Petersburg. They headed various directions, some to England, some to New York City, some to Poland, some to Romania.
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== The prophet adrift ==
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While Yiddish theater continued successfully in various places, Goldfaden was not on the best terms at this time with Mogulescu. They had quarrelled (and settled) several times over rights to plays, and Mogulescu and his partner [[Moishe Finkel|Moishe "Maurice" Finkel]] now dominated Yiddish theater in Romania, with about ten lesser companies competing as well. Mogulescu was a towering figure in Bucharest theater at this point, lauded on a level comparable to the actors of the National Theater, performing at times in Romanian as well as Yiddish, drawing an audience that went well beyond the Jewish community.
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Goldfaden seems, in Bercovici's words, to have lost "his theatrical elan" in this period. He briefly put together a theater company in 1886 in [[Warsaw]], with no notable success. In 1887 he went to New York (as did Mogulescu, independently). After extensive negotiations and great anticipation in the Yiddish-language press in New York ("Goldfaden in America", read the headline in the January 11, 1888 edition of the ''New Yorker Yiddishe Ilustrirte Zaitung''), he briefly took on the job of director of Mogulescu's new "Rumanian Opera House"; they parted ways again after the failure of their first play, whose production values were apparently not up to New York standards. Goldfaden attempted (unsuccessfully) to found a theater school, then headed in 1889 for [[Paris]], rather low on funds. There he wrote some poetry, worked on a play that he didn't finish at that time, and put together a theater company that never got to the point of putting on a play (because the cashier made off with all of their funds [Adler, 1999, 262 commentary]). In October 1889 he scraped together the money to get to [[Lviv|Lvov]], where his reputation as a poet again came to his rescue.
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== Lvov ==
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Lvov was not exactly a dramatist's dream. Leon Dreykurs described audiences bringing meals into the theater, rustling paper, treating the theater like a beer garden. He also quotes Jacob Schatzky: "All in all, the Galician milieu was not favorable to Yiddish theater. The intellectuals were assimilated, but the masses were fanatically religious and they viewed Jewish 'comedians' with disdain."<ref name="Bercovici, 1998, 88">Bercovici, 1998, 88</ref>
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Nonetheless, Iacob Ber Ghimpel, who owned a Yiddish theater there, was glad to have a figure of Goldfaden's stature. Goldfaden completed the play he'd started in Paris, ''Rabi Yoselman, oder Die Gzerot fun Alsas'' ("Rabbi Yoselman, or The Alsatian Decree"), in five acts and 23 scenes, based on the life of [[Josel of Rosheim]]. At this time he also wrote an operetta ''Rothschild'' and a semi-autobiographical play called ''Mashiach Tzeiten'' (''Messiah Times'') that gave a less-than-optimistic view of America.
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Kalman Juvelier, an actor in Ber Ghimpel's company, credited Goldfaden's brief time in Lvov as greatly strengthening the caliber of performance there, working with every actor on understanding his or her character, making sure that the play was more than just a series of songs and effects, respected by all.<ref name="Bercovici, 1998, 88"/>
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== Back to Bucharest ==
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[[Image:Goldfaden - a zecea porunca.jpg|thumb|left|This Romanian-language poster for ''The Tenth Commandment'' offers an alternate title ''Heaven and Hell''.]]
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Buoyed by his success in Lvov, he returned to Bucharest in 1892, as director of the Jigniţa theater. His new company again included Lazăr Zuckermann; other players were Marcu (Mordechai) Segalescu, and later Iacob Kalich, Carol Schramek, Malvina Treitler-Löbel and her father H. Goldenbers. Among his notable plays from this period were ''Dos zenteh Gebot, oder Lo tachmod'' (''The Tenth Commandment, or Thou Shalt Not Covet''), ''Judas Maccabaeus'', and ''Judith and Holfernes'' and a translation of [[Johann Strauss II|Johann Strauss]]'s ''Gypsy Baron''.<ref>Bercovici, 1998, 88,, 91, 248</ref>
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However, it was not a propitious time to return to Romania. Yiddish theater had become a business there, with slickly written advertisements, coordinated performances in multiple cities using the same publicity materials, and cutthroat competition: on one occasion in 1895, a young man named Bernfeld attended multiple performances of Goldfaden's ''Story of Isaac'', memorized it all (including the songs), and took the whole package to Kalman Juvilier, who put on an unauthorized production in Iaşi. Such outright theft was possible because once Ion Ghica headed off on a diplomatic career, the National Theater, which was supposed to adjudicate issues like unauthorized performances of plays, was no longer paying much attention to Yiddish theater. (Juvilier and Goldfaden finally reached an out-of-court settlement.)<ref>Bercovici, 1998, 89-90 attributes the account to Juvilier, although Sandrow, 2003, 12, tells this as being Leon Blank, not Juvilier</ref>
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Cutthroat competition was nothing to what was to follow. The 1890s were a tough time for the Romanian economy, and a rising tide of anti-Semitism made it an even tougher time for the Jews. One quarter of the Jewish population emigrated, with intellectuals particularly likely to leave, and those intellectuals who remained were more interested in politics than in theater: this was a period of social ferment, with Jewish [[socialism|socialists]] in Iaşi starting ''Der Veker'' (''The Awakener'').
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Goldfaden left Romania in 1896; soon Juvilier's was the only active Yiddish theater troupe in the country, and foreign troupes had almost entirely ceased coming to the country. Although Lateiner, Horowitz, and Shumer kept writing, and occasionally managed to put on a play, it was not a good time for Yiddish theater &ndash; or any theater &ndash; in Romania, and would only become worse as the economy continued to decline.
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Goldfaden wandered Europe as a poet and journalist. His plays continued to be performed in Europe and America, but rarely, if ever, did anyone send him royalties. His health deteriorated &ndash; a 1903 letter refers to [[asthma]] and spitting up blood &ndash; and he was running out of money. In 1903, he wrote Jacob Dinesohn from Paris, authorizing him to sell his remaining possessions in Romania, clothes and all. This gave him the money to head once more to New York in 1904.
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== New York ==
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In America, he again tried his hand at journalism, but a brief stint as editor of the ''New Yorker Yiddishe Ilustrirte Zaitung'' resulted only in getting the paper suspended and landing himself a rather large fine. On March 31, 1905, he recited poetry at a benefit performance at [[Cooper Union]] to raise a pension for Yiddish poet [[Eliakum Zunser]], even worse off than himself because he had found himself unable to write since coming to America in 1889. Shortly afterwards, he met a group of young people who had a Hebrew language association at the [[Theodor Herzl|Dr. Herzl]] Zion Club, and wrote a Hebrew-language play ''David ba-Milchama'' (''David in the War''), which they performed in March 1906, the first Hebrew-language play to be performed in America. Repeat performances in March 1907 and April 1908 drew successively larger crowds.
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He also wrote the spoken portions of ''Ben Ami'', loosely based on [[George Eliot]]'s ''[[Daniel Deronda]]''. After Goldfaden's former bit player [[Jacob Pavlovich Adler|Jacob Adler]] &mdash; by now the owner of a prominent New York Yiddish theater &mdash; optioned and ignored it, even accusing Goldfaden of being "senile", it premiered successfully at rival [[Boris Thomashefsky]]'s People's Theater  December 25, 1907, with music by H. Friedzel and lyrics by Mogulescu, who was by this time an international star.<ref>Sandrow, 2003, 14</ref>
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He died in New York City in 1908. At the time of his death, the ''[[New York Times]]'' called him not only "the Yiddish Shakespeare", but "both a poet and a prophet", and added that "...there is more evidence of genuine sympathy with and admiration for the man and his work than is likely to be manifested at the funeral of any poet now writing in the English language in this country." An estimated 75,000 attended his funeral procession from the People's Theater in [[Bowery, Manhattan|the Bowery]] to Washington Cemetery in [[Brooklyn]].<ref>In the article signed by Alec Baron in the Cambridge Guide of  Theatre,1990, are mentioned 30,000</ref>
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In November 2009 Goldfaden was the subject of postage stamps issued jointly by Israel and Romania.
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== Works ==
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=== Plays ===
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Sources disagree about the dates (and even the names) of some of Goldfaden's plays. As usual in transcribing Yiddish, spellings vary wildly.
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* ''Die Mumeh Soseh'' (''Aunt Susie'') wr. 1869<ref name="4-wall">Date according to [http://www.4-wall.com/authors/authors_g/goldfaden_abraham.htm Partial list of plays by Goldfaden]. Many of these may be on the mark, but some (such as the absurdly early 1877 for a serious work such as ''Rabi Yoselman'') are obviously mistaken.</ref><ref name="Berkowitz-date">Date according to [Berkowitz, 2004]</ref>
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* ''Die Tzwei Sheines'' (''The Two Neighbours'') wr. 1869<ref name="4-wall"/> (possibly the same as ''Die Sheines'' 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date">Date according to [Bercovici, 1998]. Bercovici's dates have been boldfaced where dates are disputed; they may reasonably be seen as authoritative if no earlier date is given, since most are based on specific, cited theater productions.</ref>
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* ''Polyeh Shikor'' (''Polyeh, the Drunkard'') 1871<ref name="4-wall"/>
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* ''Anonimeh Komedyeh'' (''Anonymous Comedy'') 1876<ref name="4-wall"/>
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* ''Die Rekruten'' (''The Recruits'') 1876,<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>  1877<ref name="4-wall"/>
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* ''Dos Bintl Holtz'' (''The Bundle of Sticks'') 1876<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Fishl der balegole un zain knecht Sider'' (''Fishel the Junkman and His Servant Sider'') 1876<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Die Velt a Gan-Edn'' (''The World and Paradise'') 1876<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Der Farlibter Maskil un der Oifgheklerter Hosid'' (''The Infatuated Philosopher and the Enlightened Hasid'') 1876<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Der Shver mitn eidem'' (''Father-in-Law and Son-in-Law'') 1876<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Die Bobeh mit dem Einikel'' (''The Grandmother and the Granddaughter'') '''1876''',<ref name="Bercovici-date"/> 1879<ref name="4-wall"/>
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* ''The Desolate Isle'', Yiddish translation of a play by [[August von Kotzebue]], 1876<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Die Intrigeh oder Dvosie di pliotkemahern'' (''The Intrigue or Dvoisie Intrigued'') 1876,<ref name="4-wall"/>  '''1877'''<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''A Gloz Vaser'' (''A Glass of Water'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Hotje-mir un Zaitje-mir'' (''Leftovers'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Shmendrik, oder Die komishe Chaseneh'' (''[[Schmendrik]] or The Comical Wedding'')  '''1877''',<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>  1879<ref name="4-wall"/>
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* ''Shuster un Shnaider'' (''Shoemaker and Tailor'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Die Kaprizneh Kaleh, oder Kaptsnzon un Hungerman'' (''The Capricious Bride or Pauper-son and Hunger-man'') '''1877'''<ref name="Bercovici-date"/><ref name="Sandrow-date">Date according to [Sandrow, 2003] as a conservative date (that is, the play is known to have been written by this time).</ref>  presumably the same play as ''Die kaprizneh Kaleh-Moid'' (''The Capricious Bridemaid'') 1887<ref name="4-wall"/>
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* ''Yontl Shnaider'' (''Yontl the Tailor'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Vos tut men?'' (''What Did He Do?'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Die Shtumeh Kaleh'' (''The Dumb Bride'') '''1877''',<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>  1887<ref name="4-wall"/>
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* ''Die Tzwei Toibe'' (''The Two Deaf Men'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Der Ghekoifter Shlof'' (''The Purchased Sleep'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Die Sheines'' (''The Neighbors'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Yukel un Yekel'' (''Yukel and Yekel'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Der Katar'' (''Catarrh'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Ix-Mix-Drix'', 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Die Mumeh Sose'' (''Mute Susie'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Braindele Kozak'' (''[[Breindele Cossack]]''), 1877<ref name="4-wall"/><ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Der Podriatshik'' (''The Purveyor''), 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Die Alte Moid'' (''The Old Maid'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Die Tzvei fardulte'' (''The Two Scatter-Brains'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Die Shvebeleh'' (''Matches'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
+
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* ''Fir Portselaiene Teler'' (''Four Porcelain Plates'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
+
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* ''Der Shpigl'' (''The Mirror'') 1877<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Toib, Shtum un Blind'' (''Deaf, Dumb and Blind'') 1878<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Der Ligner, oder Todres Bloz'' (''The Liar, or, Todres, Blow'') (or ''Todres the Trombonist'') 1878<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''[[Ni-be-ni-me-ni-cucurigu]]'' (''Not Me, Not You, Not Cock-a-Doodle-Doo'' or ''Neither This, Nor That, nor Kukerikoo''; Lulla Rosenfeld also gives the alternate title ''The Struggle of Culture with Fanaticism'') 1878<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
+
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* ''Der Heker un der Bleher-iung'' (''The Butcher and the Tinker'') 1878<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
+
-
* ''Die Kishufmacherin'' (''The Sorceress'', also known as ''[[The Witch of Botoşani]]'') '''1878''',<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>  1887<ref name="4-wall"/>
+
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* ''Soufflé'', '''1878'''<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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-
* ''Doi Intriganten'' (''Two Intriguers'') 1878<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Die tzwei Kuni-lemels'' (''The Fanatic, or [[The Two Kuni-Lemls]]'') 1880<ref name="4-wall"/><ref name="Sandrow-date"/>
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* ''Thiat Hametim'' (''The Winter of Death'') 1881<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
+
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* ''Shulamith'' (''[[Shulamith]]'' or ''The Daughter of Jerusalem'') wr. 1880,<ref name="4-wall"/>  '''1881'''<ref name="Sandrow-date"/>
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* ''Dos Zenteh Gebot, oder Lo Tachmod'' (''The Tenth Commandment, or Thou Shalt Not Covet'') '''1882''',<ref name="Sandrow-date"/>  1887<ref name="4-wall"/>
+
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* ''Der Sambatien'' (''[[Sambation]]'') 1882<ref name="Sandrow-date"/>
+
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* ''Doctor Almasada, oder Die Yiden in Palermo'' (''Doctor Almasada, or The Jews of Palermo'' also known as ''Doctor Almasado'', ''Doctor Almaraso'', ''[[Doctor Almasaro]]'') 1880,<ref name="4-wall"/>  1883<ref name="Sandrow-date"/>
+
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* ''[[Bar Kokhba (play)|Bar Kokhba]]'', 1883,<ref name="4-wall"/>  1885<ref name="Sandrow-date"/>
+
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* ''Akejdos Jzchuk'' (''The Sacrifice of Isaac''), 1891<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Dos Finfteh Gebot, oder Kibed Ov'' (''The Fifth Commandment, or Thou Shalt Not Kill''), 1892<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Rabi Yoselman, oder Die Gzerot fun Alsas'' (''[[Rabbi Yoselman, or The Alsatian Decree]]'') 1877,<ref name="4-wall"/>  1892<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
+
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* ''Judas Maccabeus'', 1892<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
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* ''Judith and Holofernes'', 1892<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
+
-
* ''Mashiach Tzeiten?!'' (''The Messianic Era?!'') 1891<ref name="4-wall"/><ref name="Berkowitz-date"/>  '''1893'''<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
+
-
* Yiddish translation of [[Johann Strauss II|Johann Strauss]]'s ''[[The Gypsy Baron|Gypsy Baron]]'' 1894<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
+
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* ''Sdom Veamora'' (''Sodom and Gomorrah'') 1895<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
+
-
* ''Die Catastrofe fun Braila'' (''The Catastrophe in Brăila'') 1895<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
+
-
* ''Meilits Ioisher'' (''The Messenger of Justice'') 1897<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>
+
-
* ''David ba-Milchama'' (''David in the War'') 1906,<ref name="4-wall"/>  in Hebrew
+
-
* ''Ben Ami'' (''Son of My People'') '''1907''',<ref name="Bercovici-date"/>  1908<ref name="4-wall"/>
+
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== References ==
+
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+
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* &mdash; "East Side Honors Poet of its Masses; Cooper Union Throng Cheers Eliakum Zunser", ''[[New York Times]]'', March 31, 1905, 7.
+
-
* &mdash;, "Noted Jewish Bard Dead", ''New York Times'', January 10, 1908, 7.
+
-
* &mdash;, "75,000 at Poet's Funeral", ''New York Times'', January 11, 1908, 1.
+
-
* &mdash;, "Burial of a Yiddish Poet", ''New York Times'', January 12, 1908, 8.
+
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* &mdash;, [http://www.4-wall.com/authors/authors_g/goldfaden_abraham.htm Partial list of plays by Goldfaden]; the names are useful, but some of the dates are certainly incorrect. Retrieved January 11, 2005.
+
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* [[Jacob Pavlovich Adler|Adler, Jacob]], ''A Life on the Stage: A Memoir'', translated and with commentary by Lulla Rosenfeld, Knopf, New York, 1999, ISBN 0-679-41351-0.
+
-
* [[Israil Bercovici|Bercovici, Israil]], ''O sută de ani de teatru evreiesc în România'' ("One hundred years of Yiddish/Jewish theater in Romania"), 2nd Romanian-language edition, revised and augmented by Constantin Măciucă. Editura Integral (an imprint of Editurile Universala), Bucharest (1998). ISBN 973-98272-2-5. ''See the [[Israil Bercovici|article on the author]] for further publication information.'' This is the primary source for the article. Bercovici cites many sources. In particular, the account of the 1873 concert in Odessa is attributed to ''Archiv far der geşihte dun idişn teater un drame'', Vilna-New York, 1930, vol. I, pag. 225.
+
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* Berkowitz, Joel, [http://yiddishbookcenter.org/pdf/pt/44/PT44_goldfaden.pdf Avrom Goldfaden and the Modern Yiddish Theater: The Bard of Old Constantine] ([[PDF]]), ''Pakn Treger'', no. 44, Winter 2004, 10-19.
+
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* Jacobs, Joseph and Wiernik, Peter, [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=305&letter=G Goldfaden, Abraham B. Hayyim Lippe] in the ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]'' (1901&ndash;1906). The article  is not terribly well researched, but is useful for the names of books, etc.
+
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* Benjamin Nathans,Gabriella Safran (ed),''Culture Front - Representing Jews in Eastern Europe'', University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008
+
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* Michael Riff, ''The Face of Survival: Jewish Life in Eastern Europe Past and Present''. Vallentine Mitchell, London, 1992, ISBN 0-85303-220-3.
+
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* Sandrow, Nahma, "The Father of Yiddish Theater", [http://www.zamir.org/Notes/2003f.pdf ''Zamir'', Autumn 2003] ([[PDF]]), 9-15. There is much interesting material here, but Sandrow does retail a story about Goldfaden being a poor stage performer, which Bercovici debunks.
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== External links ==
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{{commonscat}}
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-->
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Текущая версия на 22:51, 30 мая 2013

  1. redirect ej:Гольдфаден, Авром
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