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| + | #redirect [[:ej:История евреев в Марокко в Новое время]] |
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| - | | АВТОР1 = Л.Гроервейдл
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| - | | ДАТА СОЗДАНИЯ =12/03/2013
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| - | }}{{Начало_работы}}
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| - | [[Файл:Moroccan Kabbalah.jpg|250px|right|thumb|[[Каббала|Каббалистическое]] заклинание против скорпионов из Марокко]] | + | |
| - | В XVI в. в Марокко переселялись и марраны и возвращались в иудаизм. Многие из них помогали португальским войскам захватывать и удерживать города марокканского побережья. Португальские власти разрешили евреям жить на захваченных территориях и исповедовать свою веру.
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| - | Иммигранты-евреи, в отличие от местного населения, были знакомы с европейской торговлей, культурой и ремеслами. Их знания и опыт способствовали расцвету страны при династии Саадидов (1554–1659). В некоторых районах страны местное еврейское население слилось с [[сефард]]скими общинами изгнанников ([[Тетуан]], [[Танжер]]). В других районах обе группы сосуществовали, не сливаясь, и между ними часто возникали трения.
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| - | [[Фес]] был духовным центром изгнанников, которые по всей стране ревностно соблюдали свои обычаи, молились в своих [[синагога]]х, говорили на [[Ладино|еврейско-испанском]] языке и в управлении общиной придерживались своих старых испанских уставов. [[Саббатианство|Движение Шабтая Цви]] в середине XVII в. имело в Марокко много приверженцев.
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| - | В XVII и XVIII вв. экономическое положение евреев Марокко упрочилось, увеличилось число ремесленников и торговцев. Производством и торговлей цветными металлами, вином, сахаром занимались только евреи (до 1912 г. преобладающая часть морской торговли сосредоточивалась в руках гильдии еврейских купцов).
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| - | Экономические позиции евреев особенно усилились при султане Сиди Мухаммеде бен Абдаллахе (1757–90), пытавшемся ввести в Марокко европейские порядки. Заинтересованный в развитии торговых связей с Европой, он поселил большое число еврейских семей в портовом городе Могадор (Ас-Сувейра), освободив их от всех налогов, которыми были обложены евреи Марокко. Город превратился в основной порт Марокко, имевший торговые связи с еврейскими общинами по всей Европе. Благодаря этому еврейское население Могадора настолько выросло и приобрело влияние, что в конце XVIII в. городской торговый центр не работал в субботу.
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| - | Султаны Марокко использовали евреев на государственной службе. При каждом марокканском правителе служили советники-евреи (как правило, потомки выходцев из Испании): министры финансов, дипломатические представители и другие.
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| - | Одним из первых дипломатов-евреев в Марокко был Ш. Палаче (умер в 1616 г.), подписавший в 1610 г. договор между Марокко и Нидерландами. С приходом к власти в конце XVII в. династии Алавидов участие евреев в государственном управлении еще более возросло. Иосеф Толедано (умер около 1700 г.) был главным министром султана Исмаила (1672–1727) и заключил соглашение между Марокко и [[Нидерланды|Нидерландами]]. Глава еврейской общины Моше Ибн Аттар (Бен-Аттар; умер, по-видимому, в 1725 г.) был уполномоченным Марокко при составлении договора с Великобританией в 1721 г.
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| - | Однако в целом положение марокканских евреев было очень тяжелым. В большинстве городов они жили в особых [[Еврейские кварталы|еврейских кварталах]]. Им запрещалось владеть домами и землями вне этих кварталов. Еврей не имел права поднять руку на мусульманина даже в целях самозащиты. Евреев обязывали носить черную одежду, а также снимать обувь на улицах, где находились мечети.
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| - | Многие постановления марокканских султанов в отношении евреев были унизительными, например, запрет ездить на лошадях. От этих ограничений в XVIII в. – начале XX в. удавалось освободиться лишь некоторым богатым евреям, а также тем, кто сумел приобрести гражданство одной из европейских стран, поступить на консульскую службу либо стать агентами на службе у европейских чиновников и коммерсантов, пользующихся капитуляционными правами, то есть освобожденных от налогов и подсудных только иностранным консулам, а не марокканским судам.
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| - | Во главе еврейских общин Марокко стояли [[нагид]]ы, которые делили власть с [[раввин]]ами. Нагиды, с одной стороны, были представителями общины перед султанской властью, а с другой — представителями власти перед общинами.
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| - | Султаны облагали еврейские общины высокими налогами: за выплату их несли ответственность [[нагид]]ы, которые оказывались в трудном положении и терпели большие убытки, когда общины были не в состоянии уплатить налог. Многие марокканские нагиды, раввины, [[Пиют|пайтаним]], [[Каббала|каббалисты]], дипломаты и государственные деятели 15–18 вв. были выходцами из семей изгнанников, в основном из Испании и Португалии: Абенсур, де Авила, Уззиэль, Сереро, Толедано и другие.
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| - | Положение евреев Марокко ухудшилось за время недолгого правления Язида (1790–92). В отместку за нежелание евреев поддержать его в борьбе с братом за престол он ознаменовал свой приход к власти серией [[погром]]ов, во время которых в Тетуане, [[Мекнес]]е, [[Марракеш]]е, Фесе были убиты сотни евреев. Многие были вынуждены принять ислам.
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| - | Гонения прекратились с приходом к власти нового султана Сулеймана (1792–1822), однако положение евреев оставалось тяжелым. В ряде городов Марокко были созданы [[гетто]]. Торговля находилась в состоянии полного упадка; некоторые богатые еврейские семьи предпочли эмигрировать в Англию.
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| - | == Источники ==
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| - | * [http://www.eleven.co.il/ Электронная еврейская энциклопедия]
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| - | * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Английский раздел Википедии]
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| - | * [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/ Jewish Virtual Library]
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| - | * [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/ Jewish Encyclopedia]
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| - | * [http://www.mindspring.com/~jaypsand/timbuktu2.htm The Jews of Africa]
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| - | * "История Африки". Хрестоматия. М., Главная редакция восточной литературы издательства «Наука», 1979
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| - | Примечания
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| - | {{Примечания}}
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| - | [[Категория:История еврейского народа]]
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| - | [[Категория:Евреи в Африке]]
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| - | [[Категория:История евреев в новое время]]
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| - | <!-- A new group of Marranos was brought to Morocco through the definite establishment of the [[Inquisition]] in Portugal under [[Pope Paul III]] in 1536.<ref>ib. p. 217</ref> But in spite of all the suffering which Portugal had brought upon the Jews, there yet remained enough patriotism in the hearts of her rejected Jewish sons to cause them to help their former oppressors to preserve their old possessions on the Moroccan coast and to gain new ones. Through the strategy of a Jewish physician the Portuguese in 1508 succeeded in conquering the old seaport town of [[Safi, Morocco|Safi]], which had a large number of Jewish inhabitants and which, chiefly through them, had become an important commercial center.<ref>ib. pp. 155 et seq.</ref> Two years later, in the same city, upon the reconquest of which the Moors had been steadily intent, was besieged by a large Moorish army. Thereupon two Portuguese Jews, Isaac Bencemero and a certain Ismail, brought assistance to the besieged with two ships manned by coreligionists and equipped at their own cost.<ref>ib.; see Bencemero, Isaac</ref> In Safi, the Jews were allowed to live as such by Emanuel's permission; also in [[Asilah]] after 1533, which had long been a Portuguese possession. In the quarrels which afterward took place between the Moors and the governors of Azamur in 1526, Abraham ben Zamaira and Abraham Cazan, the most influential Jew in Azemmour in 1528, served the Portuguese as negotiators.<ref>ib. p. 161</ref> The Jews Abraham and Samuel Cabeça of Morocco also had dealings with the Portuguese generals. When, in 1578, the young king Sebastian with almost his whole army met death, and Portugal saw the end of her glory, at [[Alcazarquivir]], the few nobles who remained were taken captive and sold to the Jews in Fez and Morocco. The Jews received the Portuguese knights, their former countrymen, into their houses very hospitably and let many of them go free on the promise that they would send back their ransom from Portugal.<ref>ib. p. 260</ref> Numerous newly immigrated Jews, whose descendants faithfully adhere to the use of their Spanish dialects, [[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]] and [[Haketia]] to the present day and who surpass older Jewish Moroccans in education and intellectual achievement, subsequently become prominent in Moroccan history. With their skill in European commerce, arts, and handicrafts, hitherto largely unknown to the [[Moors]], and with their wealth, Jews have contributed conspicuously to the rise and development of the [[Alaouite Dynasty]] since its beginning in 1666.<ref>See G. B. Ramusio in [[Leo Africanus]], "The History and Description of Africa," ed. R. Brown, iii. 1004, London, 1896</ref>
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| - | ===Under Moulay Rashid and Moulay Ismail===
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| - | [[File:Moroccan Kabbalah.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]] charm against scorpions from Morocco.]]
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| - | The Jews suffered much during the great conquests of [[Al-Raschid of Morocco|Moulay Rashid]], who united the separate parts of Morocco into one single state, and wished to add to it all northwest [[Africa]]. According to Chénier, when Al-Raschid took the city of [[Marrakech]] in 1670, at the desire of the inhabitants he caused the Jewish counselor and governor of the ruling prince Abu Bakr, together with the latter and his whole family, to be publicly burned, in order to inspire terror among the Jews.<ref name="chénier">''Chénier, "Recherches Historiques sur les Maures et Histoire de l'Empire de Maroc," ii. 351, Paris, 1787''</ref> He also tore down the [[synagogue]]s of the city, expelled many Jews from the Berber region of Sus and treated them tyrannically. His demands on the Jews in the way of taxes were enormous; he had them collected by Joshua ben Hamoshet, a rich Jew, to whom he was under obligations for various services and whom he appointed chief over the Jews. He even ordered the Jews to supply wine to the [[Christian]] [[slavery|slave]]s.
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| - | Moulay Rashid's successor was his brother [[Ismail of Morocco|Ismail]] (Moulay Ismail) (1672), one of the cruelest of tyrants. On his accession Ismail appointed his Jewish adviser [[Joseph Toledani]], son of [[Daniel Toledani]], Moulay Raschid's counselor, to be his minister, in which capacity Joseph concluded a peace between [[Morocco]] and [[Holland]]. Under Ismail's rule the ruined synagogues were rebuilt, although his taxes on Jews were oppressive. One day, he threatened to compel them to accept [[Islam]] if their [[Messiah]] did not come within a definite time. The Jews understood the hint and satisfied his pious zeal with a very large sum of money.<ref name="chénier2">''Chénier, "The Present State of the Empire of Morocco," i. 354, London, 1788; comp. Jost, "Gesch. der Israeliten," viii. 42 et seq.''</ref> The Jews, who served as tax-collectors on the whole coast, used to give Ismail a golden riding-outfit as an annual "present"--an inducement to keep them in office—and a hen and a dozen chickens fashioned in gold as a tax payment for the whole Jewish community.<ref name="chénier3">''Chénier, l.c. i. 326''</ref> Ismail had another way of securing money: for a certain sum he would sell to an aspirant for honors the position and wealth of one of his favorites. In one such transaction Maimaran, who was chief ruler over the Jews of the realm, feared a rival in Moses ibn 'A??ar, and offered the sultan a certain sum for his head. Ismail then let Moses ibn 'A??ar know how much had been offered for his head, whereupon Ibn 'A??ar offered double the sum for the head of his opponent. The sultan took the money from both, called them fools, and reconciled them to each other, whereupon Ibn 'A??ar married a daughter of Maimaran and shared with his father-in-law reign over the Jews. The same Moses ibn 'A??ar was Moorish plenipotentiary in the making of a compact with [[Great Britain]] in 1721.
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| - | ===In the 18th century===
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| - | [[File:Jews of Fez.jpg|thumb|Jews of Fez, c. 1900.]]
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| - | [[File:A Jewish house in Mogador by Darondeau 1807 1841.jpg|thumb|A Jewish house in [[Mogador]], by [[Darondeau]] (1807–1841).]]
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| - | The condition of the Jewish community was unchanged under [[Mohammed III of Morocco|Mohammed III]] (1757–89), who distinguished himself by his attempt to introduce [[Europe]]an culture into his kingdom. His eldest son, Moulay Ali, governor of [[Fes, Morocco|Fez]], courageously opposed his father's suggestion to impose a tax upon that city in favor of his other brothers, which tax was to be paid by the Jewish community. He stated that the Jews of Fez were already so poor that they were unable to bear the present tax and that he was not willing to increase still further their excessive misery.<ref name="chénier4">''Chénier, l.c. i. 341''</ref> His minister was the Jew [[Elijah ha-Levi]], who had at one time fallen into disgrace and had been given as a [[slavery|slave]] to a smuggler of [[Tunis]], but had been restored to favor.<ref name="jost">''Jost, l.c. viii. 45''</ref> The accession to the throne of [[Yazid of Morocco|Yazid]], on the death of Mohammed III in 1789, led to a terrible massacre of the Moroccan Jews, having refused him their support in his fight with his brother for the succession. As a punishment the richer Jews of [[Tetouan]], at his entry into the city, were tied to the tails of horses and dragged through the city. Many were killed in other ways or robbed. Jewish women were raped. The Spanish consul, Solomon Hazzan, was executed for alleged treachery, and the Jews of [[Tangier]], [[Asilah]], and [[Alcazarquivir]] were condemned to pay a large sum of money. Elijah, the minister of the former king, who had always opposed Yazid in the council, quickly embraced [[Islam]] to avoid being persecuted; but he died soon after. The cruelty of the persecutors reached its climax in Fez. In [[Rabat]], as in [[Meknes]], the Jews were ill-treated. In [[Mogador]], strife arose between the Jews and the city judge on the one hand, and the Moorish citizens on the other; the dispute was over the question of Jewish garb. Finally the Jews were ordered to pay 100,000 piasters and three shiploads of gunpowder; and most of them were arrested and beaten daily until the payment was made. Many fled beforehand to [[Gibraltar]] or other places; some died as [[martyr]]s; and some accepted Islam.<ref name="jost2">''Jost, l.c. viii. 44 et seq.''</ref> The sanguinary events of the year 1790 have been poetically described in two kinot for the Ninth of Ab, by Jacob ben Joseph al-Mali? and by David ben Aaron ibn Husain.<ref name="kaufmann">''D. Kaufmann, "Z. D. M. G." l. 238 et seq.; "R. E. J." xxxvii. 120 et seq.''</ref>
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| - | From the second half of this century various accounts of travels exist which give information concerning the external position of the Jews. Chénier, for example, describes them as follows:
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| - | <blockquote>"The Jews possess neither lands nor gardens, nor can they enjoy their fruits in tranquillity. They must wear only black, and are obliged when they pass near [[mosque]]s, or through streets in which there are sanctuaries, to walk barefoot. The lowest among the [[Moors]] imagines he has a right to ill-treat a Jew, nor dares the latter defend himself, because the [[Koran]] and the judge are always in favor of the Mohammedan. Notwithstanding this state of oppression, the Jews have many advantages over the Moors: they better understand the spirit of trade; they act as agents and brokers, and they profit by their own cunning and by the ignorance of the Moors. In their commercial bargains many of them buy up the commodities of the country to sell again. Some have European correspondents; others are mechanics, such as goldsmiths, tailors, gunsmiths, millers, and masons. More industrious and artful, and better informed than the Moors, the Jews are employed by the emperor in receiving the customs, in coining money, and in all affairs and intercourse which the monarch has with the European merchants, as well as in all his negotiations with the various European governments."<ref>Chénier, l.c. i. 157</ref></blockquote>
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| - | [[File:Berber Jews.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Berber Jews]] of the [[Atlas Mountains]], c. 1900.]]
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| - | There were, indeed, quite a number of such Jewish officials, negotiators, treasurers, councilors, and administrators at the Moroccan court, whom the European is inclined to call "ministers," but whom in reality the ruler used merely as intermediaries in extorting money from the people, and dismissed as soon as their usefulness in this direction was at an end. They were especially [[History of the Jews in Spain|Jews from Spain]], the [[megorashim]], whose wealth, education, and statesmanship paved their way to the court here, as formerly in Spain. One of the first of such ministers was Shumel al-Barensi, at the beginning of the 16th century in Fez, who opened the "state career" to a long succession of coreligionists ending in the 19th century with [[Masado ben Leaho]], prime minister and representative councilor of the emperor in foreign affairs. It would be erroneous to suppose that these Jewish dignitaries of the state succeeded in raising the position and the influence of their fellow believers, or that they even attempted to do so. They were usually very glad if they themselves were able to remain in office to the end of their lives.
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| - | Moroccan Jews were employed also as [[ambassador]]s to foreign courts. At the beginning of the 17th century Pacheco in the Netherlands; [[Shumel al-Farrashi]] at the same place in 1610; after 1675 [[Joseph Toledani]], who, as stated above, concluded peace with [[Holland]]; his son Hayyim in [[England]] in 1750; a Jew in Denmark. In 1780 [[Jacob ben Abraham Benider]] was sent as minister from Morocco to [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]]; in 1794 a Jew named Sumbal and in 1828 [[Meïr Cohen Macnin]] were sent as Moroccan ambassadors to the English court <ref name="picciotti">''Picciotti, "Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History" p. 173, London, 1875; Meakin, "The Moors," London, 1902)''</ref> -->
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