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| - | [[Image:SONGHAI empire map.PNG|thumb|right|300px|Сонгайская империя в 1500 году]] | + | |
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| - | '''Jews of the Bilad al-Sudan''' ({{hebrew|אַהַל יַהוּדּ בִּלַדּ אַל סוּדָּן}}, [[Judeo-Arabic]]) describes [[West Africa]]n Jewish communities who were connected to known Jewish communities from the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], or [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]. Various historical records attest to their presence at one time in the [[Ghana Empire|Ghana]], [[Mali Empire|Mali]], and [[Songhai Empire|Songhai]] empires, then called the [[Bilad as-Sudan]] from the Arabic meaning ''Land of the Blacks''. Jews from Spain, Portugal, and [[Morocco]] in later years also formed communities off the coast of [[Senegal]] and on the Islands of [[Cape Verde]]. After the rise of Islam in North and West Africa these communities ceased to exist and have since disappeared due to migration and assimilation.
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| - | == Early history ==
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| - | According to most accounts, the earliest Jewish settlements in [[Africa]] were in places such as [[Egypt]], [[Tunisia]], and [[Morocco]]. Jews had settled along the Upper [[Nile]] at [[Elephantine papyri|Elephantine]] in Egypt. These communities were augmented by subsequent arrivals of Jews after the destruction of the [[Second Temple]] in [[Jerusalem]] in 70 CE, when 30,000 Jewish slaves were settled throughout Carthage by the Roman emperor [[Titus]].
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| - | Africa is identified in various Jewish sources in connection with [[Tarshish]] and [[Ophir]].<ref>Tamid, 32b, and the parallel passage, where, "African land," is evidently the same as Carthage</ref>. The [[Septuagint]] <ref>Isaiah 23:1</ref>, and [[Jerome]] <ref>on Ezekiel 25:7</ref>, who was taught by Jews, and very often the Aramaic [[Targum]] on the [[Nevi'im|Prophets]], identify the Biblical Tarshish with Carthage, which was the birthplace of a number of [[rabbi]]s mentioned in the [[Talmud]]. Africa, in the broader sense, is clearly indicated where mention is made of the [[Ten Lost Tribes|Ten Tribes]] having been driven into exile by the Assyrians and having journeyed into Africa.<ref>Mek., Bo, 17; Tosef., Shab. vii. 25; Deut. R. v. 14; and especially Sanh. 94a</ref> Connected with this is the idea that the river [[Sambation]] is in Africa. The Arabs, who also know the legend of the Beni Musa ("Sons of Moses"), agree with the Jews in placing their land in Africa.
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| - | As early as Roman times, Moroccan Jews had begun to travel inland to trade with groups of [[Berber people|Berbers]], most of whom were [[nomad]]s who dwelt in remote areas of the [[Atlas Mountains]]. Jews lived side by side with Berbers, forging both economic and cultural ties ;some Berbers even began to practice Judaism. In response, Berber spirituality transformed Jewish ritual, painting it with a belief in the power of [[demon]]s and [[saint]]s. When the Muslims swept across the North of Africa, Jews and Berbers defied them together. Across the Atlas Mountains, the legendary Queen [[Kahina]] led a tribe of 7th century Berbers, Jews, and other North African ethnic groups in battle against encroaching Islamic warriors.
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| - | In the 10th century, as the social and political environment in [[Baghdad]] became increasingly hostile to Jews, many Jewish traders there left for the [[Maghreb]], [[Tunisia]] in particular. Over the following two to three centuries, a distinctive social group of traders throughout the Mediterranean world became known as the ''Maghrebi'', passing on this identification from father to son.
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| - | According to records such as the ''[[Tarikh al-Sudan]]'', the first recorded Jewish presence may have emerged in West Africa with the arrival of the first Zuwa ruler of Koukiya and his brother, located near the [[Niger River]]. He was known only as Zuwa Alayman (meaning “He comes from Yemen”). Some local legends state that Zuwa Alayman was a member of one of the Jewish communities that were either transported or voluntarily moved from Yemen by the [[Ethiopia]]ns in the 6th century C.E. after the defeat of [[Dhu Nuwas]]. The ''Tarikh al-Sudan'', states that there were 14 Zuwa rulers of Kukiya after Zuwa Alyaman before the rise of Islam in the region.<ref>''Tarikh es-Soudan'', Paris, 1900, by Abderrahman ben-Abdall es-Sadi (trad. O. Houdas) pages 5-10</ref>
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| - | === Trade and establishment of communities ===
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| - | In the 8th century, the [[Radanites]], a group of multi-lingual Jewish traders who traversed the known world by land and sea, including crossing the [[Sahara]], settled in [[Timbuktu]] and its environs. [Note: This previous statement provides no accurate reference.] Further, Manuscript C of the ''[[Tarikh al-fattash]]'' describes a community called the Bani Israeel that in 1402 CE existed in Tirdirma, possessed 333 wells, and had seven princes:
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| - | *Jabroot bin-Hashim
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| - | *Thoelyaman bin-Abdel Hakim
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| - | *Zeor bin-Salam
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| - | *Abdel-latif bin-Solayman
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| - | *Malik bin-Ayoob
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| - | *Fadil bin-Mzar
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| - | *Shaleb bin-Yousef
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| - | It is also stated that they had an army of 1500 men.<ref>''Tarikh al-fattash'', by Mahmoud Kati ben El-Hajj El Motaoukkal Kati, 1657, pages 62-63</ref> Other sources say that other Jewish communities in the region were formed by migrations from Morocco, Egypt, and Portugal. When the Scottish explorer [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]] traveled through West Africa in the late 18th century he was informed by an Arab he met near Walata of there being many Arabic speaking Jews in Timbuktu whose prayers were similar to the [[Moors]].<ref>''Jews of a Saharan Oasis: Elimination of the Tamantit Community'', Markus Wiener Publishers, Princeton, NJ, 2006, by John Hunwick. page 67</ref> Some communities are said to have been populated by certain Berber Jews like a group of Kal Tamasheq known as Iddao Ishaak that traveled from North Africa into [[West Africa]] for trade, as well as those escaping the Islamic invasions into [[North Africa]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Jews in Places You Never Thought of|publisher=Ktav Publishing|author= Primak, Karen|isbn=0881256080}}</ref>
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| - | ===Islamic era===
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| - | In the 14th century many [[Moors]] and Jews, fleeing persecution in Spain, migrated south to the [[Timbuktu]] area, at that time part of the [[Songhai Empire]]. Among them was the Kehath (Ka'ti) family, descended from Ismael Jan Kot Al-yahudi of [[Scheida]], Morocco. Sons of this prominent family founded three villages that still exist near Timbuktu -- [[Kirshamba]], [[Haybomo]], and [[Kongougara]]. In 1492, [[Askia Mohammad I]] came to power in the previously tolerant region of Timbuktu and decreed that Jews must convert to Islam or leave; Judaism became illegal in Mali, as it did in Catholic [[Spain]] that same year. This was based on the advice of [[Muhammad al-Maghili]].
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| - | As the historian [[Leo Africanus]] wrote in 1526:
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| - | :''"In [[Garura]] there were some very rich Jews. The intervention of the preacher (Muhammid al-Maghili) of [[Tlemcen]] set up the pillage of their goods, and most of them have been killed by the population. This event took place during the same year when the Jews had been expelled from Spain and [[Sicily]] by the [[Catholic]] King."''
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| - | Leo Africanus further wrote:
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| - | :''"The king (Askia) is a declared enemy of the Jews. He will not allow any to live in the city. If he hears it said that a Berber merchant frequents them or does business with them, he confiscates his goods."''
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| - | == Jews of the Sahara ==
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| - | {{wikisourcepar|Jewish Encyclopedia/Daggatun|Daggatun and Berber Jews}}
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| - | There seems to be little doubt that Jewish blood has largely been mixed with that of the Berbers living in the Moroccan and Algerian [[Sahara]]. It is believed that some Berber clans may have been at one time Jews and according to another tradition they are descended from the [[Philistine]]s driven out of Canaan <ref name=basset>Basset, "Nedromah,"p. 13</ref>. There is a tradition that Moses was buried in [[Tlemcen|Tlemçen]], and the presence of a large number of Jews in that part of Africa is attested to, not only by the many sacred places and shrines bearing Biblical names which are holy to Muslims as well as to Jews, but also by the presence there of a large number of Jewish sagas <ref name=basset/>. L. Rinn says: "Certain Berber tribes were for a long time of the Jewish religion, especially in Amès; and to-day, even, we see among the Hanensha of Sukahras (Algeria) a semi-nomad tribe of Israelites devoted entirely to agriculture" <ref>"Origines Berbers," p. 406 (see "Rev. Arch. de Constantine," 1867, p. 102)</ref>.
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| - | In addition, it may be noticed that Jews are to be found in the Berber "ksurs" (fortified villages) all along southern Morocco and in the adjacent Sahara. Thus, at Outat near Tafilet there is a [[mellah]] with about 500 Jews <ref name=horowitz>Horowitz, l.c. p. 202,204,205</ref>; and at [[Figuig]], a mellah with 100 Jews.<ref name=horowitz/> Going farther south to [[Tuat]], there is a large community of Jews in the oasis of Alhamada; and at Tementit, a two weeks' journey from Tafilet, the 6,000 or 8,000 inhabitants are said to be descendants of Jews converted to Islam.<ref name=horowitz/> Even much farther to the west, in the province of Sus, there is Ogulmin with 3,000 inhabitants, of whom 100 are said to be Jews.
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| - | ===Daggatun connection===
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| - | [[Image:Berber Trade with Timbuktu 1300s.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Caravan approaching Timbuktu in 1853 (from ''Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa'' by Prof. Dr. Heinrich Barth, vol. iv, London 1858)]]
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| - | The Daggatuns (whose name may perhaps be derived from the Arabic "tughatun" = infidels) were a nomadic tribe of Jewish origin living in the neighborhood of Tamentit, in the oasis of Tuat in the Moroccan [[Sahara]]. An account of the Daggatun was first given by Rabbi Mordechai Abi Serour of Akka (Morocco), who in 1857 journeyed through the Sahara to Timbuctu, and whose account of his travels was published in the "Bulletin de la Société de Géographie".<ref>Dec., 1895; see "Bulletin de l'Alliance Israèlite" vol. ii. 42, 1880; "La Grand Encyclopedie," xxiii. 254; Meakin, "Land of the Moors," p.17</ref> According to Rabbi Sarur, the Daggatun lived in tents and resembled the Berber [[Taureg people|Kel Tamesheq]] (Tuareg), among whom they live, in language, religion, and general customs. They are subject to the Tuaregs, who do not intermarry with them. Rabbi Sarur also states that their settlement in the Sahara dates from the end of the 7th century (Muslim chronology) when 'Abd al-Malik ascended the throne and conquered as far as Morocco. At Tamentit he tried to convert the inhabitants to Islam; and as the Jews offered great resistance he exiled them to the desert of Ajaj, as he did also the Tuaregs, who had only partially accepted Islam. Cut off from any connection with their brethren, these Jews in the Sahara gradually lost their Jewish practises and became nominally [[Muslim]]s.
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| - | Other accounts place a group of "Arabs" driven to Ajaj as being identified with the Mechagra mentioned by Erwin von Bary <ref>"Ghat et les Tuareg de l'Air," p. 181</ref>, among whom a few Jews are said still to dwell there. Victor J. Horowitz<ref>''Marokko.'', Leipzig 1887, pp. 58 seq.</ref> also speaks of many free tribes in the desert regions who are Jews by origin, but who have gradually thrown off Jewish customs and have apparently accepted [[Islam]]. Among these tribes, he says, are the Daggatun, numbering several thousands and scattered over several [[oasis|oases]] in the Sahara, even as far as the River Dialiva (Djoliba?) or [[Niger]]. He says, also, that they are very warlike and in constant conflict with the Tuareg. According to Horowitz, the Mechagra mentioned above are also to be reckoned as one of these Jewish tribes. Horowitz had never been to Africa, but relied mainly on rumours spread in the European Jewish community.
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| - | ==Rabbi Mordechai Aby Serour and the last Timbuktu community==
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| - | [[Image:Rabbi Mordechai 1870s.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Rabbi Mordechai Aby Serour circa 1870s - 1880s. Last Rabbi of Timbuktu.]]
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| - | [[Image:House Synagogue Rabbi Serour.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Former Timbuktu house and synagogue of Rabbi Mordechai Aby Serour used circa 1870's - 1880's.]]
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| - | Rabbi Mordechai Abi Serour, with his brother Yitzhaq, came from Morocco in 1859 to be a trader in [[Timbuktu]]. At the time of Rabbi Serour's bold enterprise, direct trade relations with the interior of west Africa (then known to them as Sudan) were monopolized by Muslim merchants. Non-Muslims were precluded from this trade because Arab merchants were determined to forestall encroachments upon their lucrative business.<ref>''God's Will The Travels of Rabbi Mordochai Abi Serour'', by Dr. Sanford H. Bederman, GSU Department of Geography Research Series, 1980, page 9</ref>
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| - | As a man of cosmopolitan experience, he was well suited to be a merchant in that time and place. He was clever, shrewd, articulate, audacious, and most important he knew Koranic law as well as most learned Muslims.<ref>Ibed. page 7</ref> Throughout his travels to Timbuktu Rabbi Serour preferred to have most of his merchandise transported across the Sahara by ''bejaoui''. The term, ''bejaoui'', refers to single or small groups of camels that carried travelers sometimes without merchandise or baggage, and were accompanied by indigenous guides.<ref>Ibed. page 10</ref>
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| - | As a Jew, he couldn't set up his trading business, so he appealed to the regional ruler, who at that time was a Fulani Emir, and negotiated [[dhimmi]], or protected people status. Between 1860 to 1862 Rabbi Serour and his brother Yitzhaq were able to become successful and they became well-known in the area. After earning a small fortune, Rabbi Serour returned to Morocco in 1863.<ref>Ibed. page 14</ref> He gave his father a large sum of money and talked his other brothers into joining him on his next venture to Timbuktu. In 1864, the Jewish colony in Timbuktu had reason to rejoice since by the end of the year they had eleven adult male Jews in residence. This was significant since it meant that they could form a [[minyan]] and establish a synagogue. They were:<ref>Ibed. page 15</ref><ref>''Les Juifs à Tombouctou, or Jews of Timbuktu'', Recueil de sources écrites relatives au commerce juif à Tombouctou au XIXe siècle, Editions Donniya, Bamako, 1999 by Professor Ismael Diadie Haidara, page 31</ref>
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| - | *Rabbi Mordechai Aby Serour
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| - | *Mordechai's brothers Esau, Avraham, and Yitzhaq
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| - | *Esau's sons Aharon and David
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| - | *Aharon's son Yitzhaq
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| - | *Moussa (Mordechai's brother in law)
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| - | *Moussa's son David
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| - | *Rabbi Raphael
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| - | *Shimon Ben-Yaaqov
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| - | ==Cape Verde==
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| - | {{seealso|History of Cape Verde}}
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| - | In Iberia the [[Reconquista]] movement was growing in its mission to recover Catholic lands from the Muslim Moors who had first arrived in the 8th century. Jews may have first arrived far earlier during the time of the [[Phoenicia]]ns and Romans. Nevertheless, Maghrebi Jews were key allies of the Moors and centuries-long residents of Iberia. Probably as early as 1480 one we may find the beginnings of the [[Spanish Inquisition]] and expulsion of Jews. It was however in 1492 that the Spanish Inquisition emerged in its fullest expression of [[anti-Semitism]]. This social pathology quickly spread to neighboring Portugal where [[John II of Portugal|King João II]] and especially [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]] in 1496, decided to exile thousands of Jews to [[São Tomé]], [[Príncipe]], and [[Cape Verde]]. The numbers expelled at this time were so great that the term "Portuguese" almost implied those of Jewish origin. Those who were not expelled were converted by force or even executed.
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| - | Despite the important role of Portuguese Jews in commerce, navigational sciences, and in the cartography of Africa, they faced [[riot]]s, [[pogrom]]s, and profound oppression during the Spanish and [[Portuguese Inquisition]]s when they became termed [[Marrano]]s (Moorish Jews) or [[Crypto-Judaism|Judeus Segredos]] (Secret Jews). This led to forced conversions and to Jews becoming known as [[New Christian|Novos Cristaos]] (New Christians). It was not until 1768 that [[Portugal]] officially abolished the distinction between "Old" and "New" (i.e. Jewish) [[Christians]].
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| - | Meanwhile, in order to begin to develop the Cape Verde Islands, which had been discovered between 1455 and 1462, the Portuguese king wrote a Royal Charter in 1466 granting the right to trade in slaves to Portuguese residing in Cape Verde. This lucrative offer was soon to be rescinded and in 1472 slave trading rights were restricted to an exclusive royal monopoly. Thus from the very beginning of its history Cape Verde, and its diverse multi-cultural peoples were situated within the context of a slave society and the slave trade.
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| - | During the early 19th century, Jews also came to settle in [[Santo Antão, Cape Verde|Santo Antão]] where there are still traces of their influx in the name of the village of Sinagoga, located on the north coast between Riberia Grande and Janela, and in the Jewish [[cemetery]] at the town of Ponta da Sol. The family names of [[Cohn]] (priest) and Wahnon are prominent in Santo Antao. Other Jewish settlers such as the Ben Oliel family migrated to [[Boa Vista, Cape Verde|Boa Vista]], trading in salt, hides, and slaves. Jewish-derived surnames can be found amongst the inhabitants of the islands. Such names can include Auday, Benros, Ben David, Cohn, DaGama, and Seruya. A final chapter of Jewish history in Cape Verde took place in the 1850s when Moroccan Jews arrived, especially in Boa Vista and [[Maio, Cape Verde|Maio]] for the hide trade.<ref>''Jews in Cape Verde and on the Guinea Coast'', Paper presented at the University of Massachusetts-Dartmouth, February 11, 1996, by Richard Lobban</ref>
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| - | ==Emergence of Arabic records in Timbuktu==
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| - | Records of the Jewish history of Mali can still be found in the Kati Andalusi library. [[Ismael Diadie Haidara]], a historian from Timbuktu, possesses old Arabic and Hebrew texts among the city's historical records.<ref>[http://www.kulanu.org/timbuktu/timbuktu.html ''The Renewal of Jewish Identity in Timbuktu'', by Karen Primack]</ref> He has also researched his own past and discovered that he is descended from the Moroccan Jewish traders of the Abana family. As he interviewed elders in the villages of his relatives, he has discovered that knowledge of the family's Jewish identity has been preserved, in secret, out of fear of persecution.
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| - | Recently there has come to light the personal library of the first [[Mahmoud Kati]], which was handed down through his descendants and added to through at least the mid-17th century. This extraordinary "discovery" was made a by a young Malian historian, Ismaël Diadié Haïdara, a member of the Kati clan, and author of several books, including L'Espagne musulmane et l'Afrique subsaharienne (1997), and Les Juifs de Tombouctou (1999). The library is currently in the possession of two branches of the Kati clan in the village of Kirshamba about 100 miles to the west of Timbuktu. Up to 1,700 out of an estimated 2,000 manuscripts in the library have been examined and evaluated by Abdul Kader Haïdara, the Timbuktu-based expert in Arabic manuscripts and guardian of the Mamma Haidara Memorial Library currently being rehabilitated through a grant from the Mellon Foundation.<ref>[http://www.sum.uio.no/research/mali/timbuktu/privates/kati/index.html ''The Kati Library'', Saharan Studies Association]</ref>
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| - | The trading documents referred to three families in particular: the Kehath family (Ka'ti) that came from southern Morocco and converted with the rest of the population in 1492; the Cohen family descended from the Moroccan Jewish trader [[al-Hajj Abd al-Salam al Kuhin]], who arrived in the Timbuktu area in the 18th century; and the Abana family, which came in the first half of the 19th century.<ref>''The Jews of Timbuktu'', by Rick Gold, Washington Jewish Week, December 30, 1999, [http://www.kulanu.org/timbuktu/JewsOfTimbuktu.html]</ref>
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| - | ==Further reading==
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| - | ===General===
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| - | *''Wars of the Jews: A Military History from Biblical to Modern Times'', Hipporcrene Books, New York, 1990, by Monroe Rosenthal and Isaac Mozeson
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| - | *''Jewish Communities in Exotic Places'', Jason Aronson Inc., Jerusalem, by Ken Blady
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| - | *''Jews In Africa: Ancient Black African Relations'', Fact Paper 19-II, By Samuel Kurinsky
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| - | *''Hebrewisms of West Africa: From Nile to Niger With the Jews'', [[The Dial Press]], NY, 1931, by Joseph J. Williams
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| - | *''Jews of a Saharan Oasis: Elimination of the Tamantit Community'', Markus Wiener Publishers, Princeton, NJ, 2006, by John Hunwick
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| - | ===Mali and Songhay===
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| - | *''Jews in Africa: Part 1 The Berbers and the Jews'', by Sam Timinsky (Hebrew History Federation)
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| - | *''The Jews of Timbuktu'', Washington Jewish Week, December 30, 1999, by Rick Gold
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| - | *''Les Juifs à Tombouctou, or Jews of Timbuktu'', Recueil de sources écrites relatives au commerce juif à Tombouctou au XIXe siècle, Editions Donniya, Bamako, 1999 by Professor Ismael Diadie Haidara
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| - | ===Cape Verde and Guinea Coast===
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| - | *''Jews in Cape Verde and on the Guinea Coast'', Paper presented at the University of Massachusetts-Dartmouth, February 11, 1996, by Richard Lobban
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| - | ==External links==
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| - | *[http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryid=806&rsid=478 Resources>Jewish communities>Magreb] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
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| - | ===Timbuktu===
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| - | *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1911321.stm ''Timbuktu: City of Legends''], Joan Baxtor
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| - | *[http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2004/08/DJIAN/11470 ''Les manuscrits trouvés à Tombouctou''], by Jean-Michel Djian
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| - | ===Northern Africa===
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| - | *[http://www.dayan.org/articles/JewsandBerbers.pdf ''Jews and Berbers''], by Dr. Bruce Maddy-Weitzman
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| - | ===Cape Verde===
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| - | *[http://www.umassd.edu/SpecialPrograms/caboverde/jewslobban.html ''Jews in Cape Verde and the Guinna Coast''], by Dr. Richard Lobban
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| - | {{Africa in topic|History of the Jews in}}
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| - | {{DEFAULTSORT:Jews Of Bilad El-Sudan}}
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| - | [[Category:Jews and Judaism in Africa|Bilad el-Sudan]]
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| - | [[Category:History of the Gambia]]
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| - | [[Category:West Africa]]
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| - | [[Category:Malian Jews| ]]
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| - | [[Category:Cape Verdean Jews| ]]
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| - | [[Category:History of Benin]]
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| - | [[Category:History of Burkina Faso]]
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| - | [[Category:History of Cape Verde]]
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| - | [[Category:History of Guinea]]
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| - | [[Category:History of Mali]]
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| - | [[Category:History of Mauritania]]
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| - | [[Category:History of Niger]]
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| - | [[Category:History of Nigeria]]
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| - | [[Category:History of Senegal]]
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| - | [[Category:Ghana Empire]]
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| - | [[Category:Mali Empire]]
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| - | [[Category:Songhai Empire]]
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| - | == См. также ==
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| - | * [[Сефарды]]
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| - | * [[Восточные евреи]]
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| - | * [[Алжир]]
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| - | * [[Тунис]]
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| - | * [[Марокко]]
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| - | * [[Ливия]]
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| - | * [[Транссахарская торговля]]
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| - | * [[Еврие и иудаизм в Африке]]
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| - | * [[Колена Израиля]]
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| - | * [[Лемба]]
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| - | * [[Колено Иуды]]
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| - | == Источники и ссылки ==
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| - | * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews_of_Bilad_el-Sudan Статья "Jews of Bilad el-Sudan" в английской части Википедии]
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| - | Примечания
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| - | {{Примечания}}
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| - | [[Категория:Черновые материалы для работы]]
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